Ban’gyesurok (磻溪隨錄, 반계수록) by Yu Hyeongweon (柳馨遠, 유형원,1622-1673), a treatise on reforming government.
Introduction to Nouns
Nouns are words that refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. In Classical Chinese, these words can be categorized into two categories: (1) definite nouns (完全名詞, 완전명사); and (2) indefinite (不完全名詞, 불완전명사) or dependent nouns (依存名詞, 의존명사). Within sentences, nouns usually function as subjects (主語, 주어) or objects (客語, 객어; 賓語, 빈어; or 目的語, 목적어).
Definite Nouns
Definite nouns can be further categorized into four categories based on their substantive meaning: (1) general nouns (普通名詞, 보통명사); (2) proper nouns (固有名詞, 고유명사); (3) abstract nouns (抽象名詞, 추상명사); and (4) numerical nouns (數量名詞, 수량명사).
水至清則無魚, 人至察則無徒.
수지청즉무어, 인지찰즉무도.
If the water is too clear, it will have no fish; if a person is overly inspected, he will have no followers.
► Household Tales of Confucius (孔子家語, 공자가어), Entering Office (入官, 입관).
孟子自齊葬於魯, 反於齊, 止於嬴.
맹자자제장어로, 반어제, 지어영.
Mencius (孟子, 맹자, Maengja) [went] from Qi (齊, 제, Je) for funeral rites at Lu (魯, 노, No), returned to Qi, and stopped by Ying (嬴, 영, Yeong).
► Mencius (孟子, 맹자, Maengja), Gong Sun Chou II (公孫丑下, 공손축하, Gongsonchukha).
燭中自有照物之理. 主理者之言也.
촉중자유조물지리. 주리자지언야.
In the candlelight, there is the the principal force (理, 리, Ri) of illuminating things. These are the words of those who [argue for the] primacy of the principal force.
► Measuring the Material Force and Counting the Principal Force (推氣測理, 추기측리), Primacy of the Principal Force and Primacy of the Material Force (主理主氣, 주리주기) by Choi Han’gi (崔漢綺, 최한기, 1803-1877).
百聞不如一見
백문불여일견
To listen a hundred times is not like seeing it once.
► Book of Han (漢書, 한서, Hanseo), Biography of Zhao Chongguo and Xin Qingji (趙充國辛慶忌傳, 조충국신경기전).
Indefinite Nouns
Indefinite or dependent nouns are those nouns which require the accompaniment of a modifier (修飾語, 수식어). The functional words, or Heosa (虛詞, 허사), that denote indefinite nouns are: (1) 所(소)~; (2) ~者(자); (3) 所(소)~者(자); and (4) 攸(유)~ . Like any noun, they can refer to person, place, thing, or idea. Such constructions in general can be translated as “He who…”, “That which…”, and other similar phrases, or not translated at all. It should be noted that these characters have other definitions and functions, which will be covered later in detail.
所(소)~ Prefixed Constructions
In 所(소)~ constructions, the descriptor, which can denote a person, place, thing, or idea, follows the character 所(소). Examples in modern Korean include: 所望(소망), meaning “what is hoped” or simply “hope”; 所謂(소위), meaning “what is called” or simply “so-called”; and 所得(소득), meaning “what is gained” or simply “profit.”
子張問: “十世可知也?” 子曰: “殷因於夏禮, 所損益, 可知也…”
자장문: “십세가지야?” 자왈: “은은어하례, 소손익, 가지야…”
Zi Zhang (子張, 자장, Ja Jang) asked, “Can the [affairs] of ten ages be known?” Confucius replied, “The Yin (殷, 은, Eun) followed the rites of the Xia (夏, 하, Ha). What has been lost and added can be known…”
► Analects (論語, 논어), Wei Zheng Chapter (爲政, 위정, Wijeong).
舟車所至, 人力所通, 天之所覆, 地之所載, 日月所照, 霜露所隊墜.
주차소지, 인력소통, 천지소부, 지지소재, 일월소조, 상로소대추.
Where the boats and cars arrived; where manpower passes; where Heaven covers; where the sun and moon illuminates; where the frost and dew fall.
► Doctrine of the Mean (中庸, 중용, Jung Yong).
今此下敎, 臣等所不忍聞也.
금차하교, 신등소불견문야.
Today, this teaching is that which the multitude of bureaucratic subjects [cannot] bear to listen.
► Daily Records of the Royal Secretariat of the Chosun Dynasty (承政院日記, 승정원일기), March 3, 1623, First Year of King Injo’s reign (仁祖, 인조, 1594-1649, r. 1623-1649).
~者(자) Postfixed Constructions
In ~者(자) constructions, the descriptor, which can denote a person, place, thing, or idea, precedes the character 者(자). Examples in modern Korean include: 患者(환자), meaning “he who suffers” or simply “patient”; 記者(기자), meaning “he who records” or simply “journalist”; and 犯罪者(범죄자), meaning “he who committed a crime” or simply “criminal.” Note that unlike modern Korean, 者(자) constructions in Classical Chinese can refer to non-human things.
五畝之宅, 樹之以桑, 五十者可以衣帛矣.
오무지댁, 수지이상, 오십자가이의백의.
If homesteads of fifty mu (畝, 무, mu) (a unit of measuring area) are planted with mulberry trees, those who are fifty years [of age] may wear silk clothing.
► Mencius (孟子, 맹자, Maengja), Liang Hui Wang Part I (梁惠王上, 양혜왕상, Yanghyewangsang).
彼竊鉤者誅, 竊國者爲諸侯.
피절구자주, 절국자위제후.
There, he who steals a hook is put to death; he who steals a country becomes a feudal lord.
► Zhuangzi (莊子, 장자, Jangja), Outer Chapters (外篇, 외편), Cutting Open Satchels (胠篋, 거협).
此五者, 邦之蠹也.
차오자, 방지두야.
These five things are the moths of states.
► Han Feizi (韓非子, 한비자, Hanbija), The Five Moths (五蠹, 오두).
所(소)~者(자) Constructions
There are also 所(소)~者(자). These should be treated similar to ~者(자) constructions. If the construction is preceded by another noun, that noun should be interpreted as having possessing the 所(소)~者(자) construction. That is, A所B者 should be interpreted as “A’s B.”
臣之所好者道也, 進乎技矣.
신지소호자도야, 진호기의.
What I, the subject, enjoy is the Way (道, 도), and advancements in art.
► Zhuangzi (莊子, 장자, Jangja), Inner Chapters (內篇, 내편), Nourishing the Lord of Life (養生主, 양생주).
所愛者, 撓法活之. 所憎者, 曲法誅滅之.
소애자, 호법활지. 소증자, 곡법주멸지.
Those who love soften the law and live; those who hate bend the law and are sent to death and destruction.
► Records of the Grand Historian (史記, 사기), Biographies on Cruel Officials (酷吏列傳, 혹리열전).
人君所畏者, 史而已.
인군소외자, 사이이.
The only thing that I, the King, fear is history.
► Quote attributed to Prince Yeonsan (燕山君, 연산군, 1476-1506, r. 1494-1506).
攸(유)~ Prefixed Constructions
The 攸(유)~ construction is not too common and mostly found in earlier Classical Chinese texts. It is used in a similar manner as the 所(소)~ construction described above.
君子有攸往, 先迷後得主
군자유유왕, 선미후득주
An exemplary person has somewhere to go, [but] he first gets lost and then attains [his proper] heading.
► Book of Changes (周易, 주역, Ju Yeok), Kun (坤, 곤, Gon).
或曰: “學無益也, 如質何?” 曰: “未之思矣. 夫有刀者, 礲諸. 有玉者, 錯諸. 不礲不錯, 焉攸用?”
혹왈: “학무익야, 여질하?” 왈: “미지사의. 부유도자, 롱제, 유옥자, 착제. 불롱불착, 언유용?”
Someone asked, “If one studies and there is no profit, what basis is [there for studying]?” Yangzi (揚子, 양자, Yangja) replied, “You have not yet thought [about it]. In general, those who carry knives, sharpen them; those who have jades, polish them. If they do not sharpen or polish, how are they useful?”
► Fanyan (法言, 법언, Beop’eon), Learning and Execution Volume (學行卷第, 학행권제).
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